3. Cultural Features
The Chinese culture is dominated
by religion and spirituality, food, and festivities.
At the core of it are ancient Chinese beliefs and
practices which stem largely from Confucianism, Taoism
and Buddhism.
Founded by Confucius (551-479 B.C.) the basic principles
were centred upon Ren (benevolence and love) and Li
(rites) especially in conjunction with the system
of social hierarchy. It soon became established as
the principal ideology in feudal China, and was the
state teaching from the Han Dynasty in 202 BC to the
end of the imperial period in 1911. Confucius feared
a breakdown in society and the loss of virtue, and
outlined five rudimentary relationships within society,
which in almost all cases took place between an inferior
and superior party.
These being - : between the ruler and ruled, husband
and wife, between parents and children, older and
younger brothers, and finally between friends. Some
aspects of Confucianism were revised almost 200 years
later when Mencius or Meng-tzu (371-289 BC) looked
to elaborate on the already existing philosophy. His
three basic points of focus were good nature of human
beings, the notion of society with a distinct distribution
of functions, and the ruler's obligation to the people.
And it was his concept of the Mandate of Heaven, where
rulers would lose the support of heaven when they
lost their virtue that paved the way for Chinese revolts.
Taoism:
More than a religion, Taoism emerged in China as a
way of life. The word ‘tao’ itself in
Chinese can be defined as ‘way’, a more
philosophical system than Confucianism. It became
embedded within the Chinese culture as both a communal
and folk religion from the 6th Century onwards under
the influence of Lao-tzu. In philosophical Taoism
the emphasis is on the ‘oneness’ of life
where everything is constituted in a single reality
– life begins and ends here. Each individual
must shun earthly ways and concentrate on strengthening
their relationship with the tao, which eventually
should lead them to immortality.
In stark contrast to philosophical Taoism, its more
communal counterpart focuses on a more practical way
of life. Here good deeds are rewarded with health
and happiness and bad punished with suffering and
pain. At the centre of it lie an array of Gods who
communicate through sacred texts and revelations.
In the folk religion of Taoism these Gods take on
a more personal role, with each individual assuming
a God to which he/she will be devoted to and look
to consult and appease. It is central to everyday
life.
Buddhism:
Buddhism first entered China from India during the
Later Han, during the time of Han Ming Ti (AD 58-76),
but only became popular at the end of the 3rd century.
It was founded by Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha,
a prince of the Sakya kingdom on the borders of what
are now India and Nepal, and spread throughout China
despite its lack of affinity with the Chinese society.
Buddhism began when the Buddha was struck with a moment
of enlightenment under a Bo tree; he advocated a pull
away from desires which he regarded as the true source
of pain. Desires could be eliminated through the Eightfold
Path in which meditation released harmful and undesirable
thoughts.
The ultimate objective was to reach a state of natural
calmness and harmony – a Nirvana where serenity
and spirituality took over. Buddhism in China followed
the Mahayana trend (Greater Vehicle) as opposed to
the Hinayana path (Lesser Vehicle). The Buddhism of
China, Korea, Japan, Nepal, Tibet, and Vietnam consisted
of more popular elements that reflected a stronger
and practical faith – namely, a belief in repetitive
prayers, heaven and deities--bodhisattvas--who would
help people gain salvation. A very dynamic faith,
Buddhism split into various schools and sects, the
most popular one in China being the Ch’an (Zen).
Major features of Zen:
• A belief in a single reality and oneness of
the Universe.
• Enlightenment can only be reached through
meditation, and not
rationality.
• It split into two main branches, Southern
Ch’an and Northern Ch’an. The former believing
in gradual enlightenment and the latter in instant.
• The southern school evolved under the powerful
influence of Hui-neng (638-713), but was not as powerful
as the northern school.
• It flourished under the T'ang and Sung dynasties
(960-1279) but suffered greatly during the Ming era
(1141-1215).
Acupuncture:
A medical technique practiced in China for centuries.
Vital energy cells called qi travel through the body
along meridians; having been obtained qi is then manipulated.
Needles of between 0.3 and 1 centimetre deep are inserted
into neuro receptors in underlying muscles to unblock
obstructions to the flow of energy around the body.
These acupuncture points are then stimulated either
by heat, pressure, weak electrical currents and even
ultra-sound – and relieve the body of pain and
distress.
Chinese martial arts can be divided into two groups;
Wushu and Koushu but have been termed universally
as Kung-Fu (literally meaning hard work). These are
further separated into internal and external martial
arts. The external combine muscular strength with
speed to produce power and external northern martial
arts include chang quan, monkey. Northern shaolin.
Southern martial arts by contrast include choy li
fut, hung gar, wing chun and hung fut – these
were initially the defence methods of everyday men
and farmers. The northern Chinese external martial
arts were however more militaristic. Contrastingly
internal martial arts have a greater emphasis on combining
qi (chi) energy with muscle strength to produce power.
It uses chou jing (wisdom) to overcome the opponent
and is developed through meditation.
